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Abstract : Almost all the vertebrates yawn,
testifying the phylogenetic old origins of this behavior.
Correlatively speaking, yawning shows an ontogenical
precociousness ( von
Baer law ) since it occurs as early as 12 weeks after
conception and remains relatively unchanged throughout
life. Thus, it is contended that these common
characteristics and their diencephalic origin allow to
model an approach from which emerges a pivotal link
between yawning and REM sleep.
Yawning and stretching reverse the muscular atonia of
the REM-sleep and reopen the collapsed airways. Yawning
appears as a powerful muscular stretch, recruiting
specific control systems particularly the paraventricular
nucleus of the hypothalamus, the locus coeruleus
(see below) and the reticular
activating system from which the vigor of this ancestral
vestige, surviving throughout evolution with little
variation, may increase arousal.
On the other hand, the
James-Lange theory proposes that afferent feedback
from muscles and viscera provides the brain with a
feeling that characterizes the active motivational state
and arousal. On this basis and using selected supporting
findings from the literature and from data provided by
daily life, it is contended that yawning takes part in
interoceptiveness by its capacity to increase arousal and
self-awareness. Adaptative behaviors depend on
interactions among the nervous system and the body by a
continuous feedback between them.
The body's schema is a main component of the self,
and interoceptive process is essential to awareness of
the body and arousal. Yawning contributes to bodily
consciousness as a behavior affiliating a sensory motor
act and his perception from which pleasure is derived.
Yawning can be seen as a proprioceptive performance
awareness which inwardly provides a pre-reflective sense
of one's body and a reappraisal of the body schema. The
behavioral consequences of adopting specific regulatory
strategies and the neural systems involved act upon
attention and cognitive changes.Thus, it is proposed that
yawning is a part of interoceptiveness by its capacity to
increase arousal and self-awareness.
Résumé : Il semble qu'à
peu près tous les vertébrés
bâillent, ce qui témoigne de
l'ancienneté phylogenétique de ce
comportement. En corollaire, le bâillement se
caractérise par sa précocité
ontogénique (récapitulation ontogenique ou
loi
de von Baer) puisqu'il est détectable
chez le
foetus dès 12 semaines après la
conception et qu'il perdure la vie durant, sans changer
d'aspect.
Ces deux caractéristiques et son origine
diencéphalique permettent de proposer une
théorie montrant les liens étroits unissant
le bâillement et le sommeil paradoxal.
Bâillements et pandiculations inversent l'hypotonie
musculaire et le collapsus des voies respiratoires
supérieures caractérisant le sommeil
paradoxal. Le bâillement apparaît comme une
puissante contraction musculaire, activée par un
système neuronal comprenant le noyau
paraventriculaire de l'hypothalamus, le locus coeruleus
(voir ci-dessous), et la
réticulé activatrice du tronc
cérébral. Toutes ces structures participent
du système du maintien et de la stimulation de
l'éveil, expliquant l'importance du
bâillement, vestige comportemental ancestral.
D'autre part, la
théorie des émotions de James-Lange
propose que les sensations provenant des muscles et des
viscères sont parmi les perceptions
nécessaires à l'activité
cérébrale tant pour l'éveil que pour
la conscience d'être. A partir de ce concept et en
collectant de multiples données d'observations et
de la littérature, pourquoi ne pas concevoir le
bâillement comme un des éléments
constituant l'intéroception par sa capacité
à stimuler l'éveil, la vigilance et la
conscience.
De l'interaction permanente et réciproque
entre le cerveau et l'ensemble du corps dépend
l'élaboration de comportements adaptés. Le
schéma corporel est un élément
essentiel du Soi. Le processus de l'intéroception
est essentiel à la vigilance et à la
conscience d'être. Le bâillement participe
aux mécanismes de la perception conciente du corps
comme comportement associant une activité motrice
sensoriellement perçue à laquelle s'ajoute
une composante hédonique. Le bâillement peut
ainsi se concevoir comme un comportement
renforçant l'auto-perception du corps et
l'engramme du schéma corporel. D'autre part,
l'attention et la cognition nécessitent des
régulations adaptatives comportementales
spécifiques (homéostasiques) sous-tendues
par des circuits neuronaux propres.
L'agrégat de toutes ces données permet
de proposer que le bâillement est un comportement
adaptatif visant à stimuler l'éveil et dont
la perception accroît la vigilance et la conscience
de soi.
The activation of
the hypothalamic
paraventricular
(PVN)
descending oxytocinergic projections (ie to the
Reticular Activating Sytem in the Brainstem) is involved
in the induction of yawning accompanied by an arousal
response, but the possibility that neural systems other
than the oxytocinergic system in the PVN also mediate the
arousal/yawning response cannot be ruled out.
Kita
I, Seki Y et al. assesse the
activity of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neurons
during yawning induced by the PVN stimulation in
anesthetized, spontaneously breathing rats using
double-staining for c-Fos and CRF.
Yawning response was evaluated
by monitoring an intercostals electromyogram as an index
of inspiratory activity and a digastric electromyogram as
an indicator of mouth opening. They also recorded the
electrocorticogram (ECoG) to determine the arousal
response during yawning.
Microinjection of l-glutamate
(2-5nmol) into the PVN produced a frequent yawning
accompanied by an arousal shift in the ECoG, and these
behavioral effects were associated with a significant
increase of c-Fos positive CRF neurons in the medial
parvocellular subdivision of the PVN.
In addition, a marked
enhancement in the c-Fos expression was found in the both
locus coeruleus (LC) and global area in the cortex when
the frequency of yawning response was increased by the
PVN stimulation, suggesting that the arousal response
during yawning might be mediated by the activation of LC
neurons.
These studies suggest that an
activation of CRF neurons in the PVN is responsible for
the arousal response accompanied by yawning
behavior.
Le PVN
médie la réponse éveil /
bâillement
L'activation, à partir
du noyau para-ventriculaire de l'hypothalamus (PVN), des
projections descendantes (vers la réticulée
du tronc cérébral) des neurones
oxytocinergiques est impliquée dans le
déclenchement du bâillement
accompagnant une réponse d'éveil à
l'électrocorticogramme. Néanmoins, il est
possible que d'autres systèmes neuronaux
qu'oxytocinergiques agissent dans le
bâillement/réaction d'éveil au niveau
du PVN.
Kita
I, Seki Y et al. ont
évalué l'activité des neurones
sécrétant de la corticotrophine (CRF)
pendant le bâillement induit par stimulation du PVN
chez des rats anesthésiés, en respiration
spontanée en utilisant un marquage par C-Fos et
CRF.
Le bâillement
était estimé par monitorage de l'EMG
intercostal (index d'activité inspiratoire) et du
digastrique (index d'ouverture de bouche).
Simultanément , ils ont enregistré
l'électrocorticogramme afin d'apprécier la
réaction d'éveil survenant au cours du
bâillement.
Des microinjections de
glutamate (2-5nmol) dans le PVN déclenchent de
fréquents bâillements
accompagnés de signes électriques
d'éveil à l'ECoG. Cet effet comportemental
s'accompagne d'un acroissement significatif de la
réaction C-Fos des neurones à CRF,
situés au niveau de la subdivision médiale
du PVN.
En parallèle, ils ont
noté un accroissement d'activité C-Fos tant
au niveau du locus coeruleus que dans le cortex,
simultanément à l'augmentation de la
fréquence des bâillements secondaires
à cette stimulation du PVN. Ceci suggère
que l'action du bâillement est
médié par le locus coeruleus.
-Kita I,
Yoshida Y, Nishino S. An activation of parvocellular
oxytocinergic neurons in the paraventricular nucleus in
oxytocin-induced yawning and penile erection. Neurosci
Res. 2006;54; 4; 269-275.
-Kita I, Sato-Suzuki
et al.Yawning responses induced by local hypoxia in
the paraventricular nucleus of the rat.Beh Brain Res
2000; 117; 1-2; 119 - 126
-Sato-Suzuki I, Kita I;
Oguri M, Arita H Stereotyped yawning responses
induced by electrical and chemical stimulation of
paraventricular nucleus of the rat Journal of
Neurophysiology, 1998; 80, 5; 2765-2775
-Seki Y, Y Nakatani, et
al Light induces cortical activation and yawning in
rat Behav Brain Res 2003; 140; 1-2; 65-73
-Seki Y,
Sato-Suzuki I, et al Yawning/cortical activation
induced by microinjection of histamine into the
paraventricular nucleus of the rat. Behav Brain Res.
2002;134(1-2):75-82.
-Collins
G, JM Witkin et al Dopamine agonist-induced yawning
in rats: a dopamine d3 receptor mediated behavior J
Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005
-Hipolide DC; Lobo LL;
De Medeiros R; Neumann B; Tufik S Treatment with
dexamethasone alters yawning behavior induced by
cholinergic but not dopaminergic agonist. Physiol Behav
1999; 65; 4-5; 829-32
-Hipolide
DC, Tufik S Paradoxical sleep deprivation in female
rats alters drug-induced behaviors Physiol Behav. 1995;
57; 6; 1139-1143
-Moyaho A,
Valencia J Grooming and yawning trace adjustment to
unfamiliar environments in laboratory Sprague-Dawley rats
J Comp Psychol 2002; 116; 3; 263-269
-Neumann BG, Troncone LR,
Braz S, Tufik S Modifications on dopaminergic and
cholinergic systems induced by the water tank technique:
analysis through yawning behavior. Arch Int Pharmacodyn
Ther 1990; 308; 32-38
-Tufik S et al
Effects of stress on drug induced yawning Physiol Behav
1995; 58; 1; 1881-1884
During the past several
decades, while methods to identify nonregurgitant
gastroesophageal reflux, such as pH probe, have come into
wide use, investigators have noted some behaviors to be
associated with reflux events in infants and older
individuals. In many cases, these associations were
general rather than temporal: patients with chronic
cough, intractable hiccups, and severe stridor had
abnormal quantities of reflux, and the behavior in
question improved concurrently with treatment of their
reflux.
The significant association of
discrete behaviors with onset of reflux episodes in
unselected subjects studied prospectively supports the
more anecdotal information previously available for many
of those behaviors. The association of these behaviors
with onset of reflux is particularly striking when one
considers the low frequency of many of the behaviors and
the resultant low power to demonstrate the association.
Only three of the behaviors (discomfort, cough-gag, and
stretch) occurred more than 20 times during the
entire study of Feranchak and al.
Three possible causal
relationships may be surmised between reflux episodes and
simultaneous discrete behaviors. The behavior may cause
the reflux, the behavior may result from the reflux, or
both may be caused by a third event.
Behaviors may cause reflux by
increasing the abdominothoracic pressure gradient - i.e.,
by increasing abdominal positive pressure (cough, sneeze,
crying) or by increasing thoracic negative pressure
(stridor, hiccups). They may also cause reflux by
inducing transient lower esophageal sphincter
relaxations, as occurs with belching other factors which
promote such relaxations are as yet poorly defined, but
might include mouthing, thumb-sucking, yawning, or
stretching, as suggested by work demonstrating
myiohyoid activity at onset of 42% of such sphincter
relaxations.
Behaviors may result from
reflux if they are manifestations of airway soiling
(cough, sneeze), of esophagitis (discomfort), or of
reflex bronchospasm, laryngospasm, or diaphragm activity
(cough, stridor, hiccups).
Behaviors may also be caused by
reflux if they are used to clear refluxate from the
esophagus (mouthing, salivation/ drooling, and possibly
thumb-sucking, stretching, or
yawning).
Yawning has not been linked to
reflux previously but was significantly associated with
onset of reflux during the study of Feranchak et al. In
each instance, yawning followed reflux by a few
seconds and was accompanied by a rise in pH, suggesting
that yawning may aid clearance of refluxate.
Further study is needed to determine whether the
yawn modifies gastroesophageal anatomy or pressure
relationships to assist clearance of esophageal
acid.
Stretching followed reflux in
the one baby in whom it was associated with reflux. Like
yawning, which often accompanies it,
stretching may aid refluxate clearance by
modifying the gastroesophageal junction. It may also be a
nonfunctional response to irritation due to
reflux.
Avant que des explorations invasives permettent
d'autentifier le reflux gastro-oesophagien, les signes
cliniques permettaient de le suspecter (toux persistante,
hoquets récurrents, stridor, etc) et de proposer
un traitement efficace les faisant disparaitre.
Bâillements
et reflux gastro-oesophagiens
Avant que des explorations
invasives permettent d'authentifier le reflux
gastro-oesophagien, les signes cliniques permettaient de
le suspecter (toux persistante, hoquets
récurrents, stridor, etc) et de proposer un
traitement efficace le faisant souvent
disparaitre.
Ces descriptions cliniques ont
des bases empiriques et correspondent à des
comportements rares et inconstants. En fait trois types
d'interactions peuvent être décrits: le
comportement est la cause du reflux, le reflux provoque
le comportement, les deux sont dûs à un
troisième évènement.
Parmi les comportements
favorisant le reflux, on peut distinguer ceux
générant une augmentation de la pression
abdominale (toux, éternuements, cris) et ceux
abaissant la pression intra-thoracique (stridor, hoquet).
Certains favorisent une relaxation du sphincter
inférieur de l'oesophage (roter, sucer le pouce,
bâiller et s'étirer).
Le reflux déclenche
lui-même des comportements secondaires à
l'inflammation par l'acidité du pharyngo-larynx
(toux, éternuements), à la douleur
rétrosternale ascendante, à un
réflexe (bronchospasme, laryngospasme) ou à
l'activité motrice du diaphragme (hoquet,
toux).
Des comportements peuvent aussi
être liés au reflux mais pour en contrer les
effets et évacuer le contenu refluant
(déglutition, salivation, succion,
étirements et
bâillements).
Le bâillement,
bien qu'il n'ait pas été jusqu'à
présent considéré comme un signe
associé au reflux, a été
remarqué par Feranchak et son équipe chez
un sujet sur trois de l'étude. A chaque fois le
bâillement succède de quelques
secondes à l'épisode de reflux. Il
s'accompagne d'une ascencion du ph suggérant que
le bâillement peut aider à
évacuer le liquide refluant. D'autres
études seront nécessaires afin de
déterminer si le bâillement agit en
modifiant l'anatomie oesophago-gastrique ou les pressions
du bas oesophage accélérant la clairance du
refluant acide.
Chez un bébé, des
étirements succédaient au reflux.
Soit là aussi, ils favorisaient une
accélération de l'évacuation du
reflux ou alors il s'agissait d'un comportement non
spécifique extériorisant la gêne
douloureuse déclenché par le
reflux.
Other Minds:
How humans bridge the divide between self and
others
Bertram F. Malle
Sara D. Hodges
Guilford Publications (août
2005)
354 pages
ISBN : 1593851871
"In the age of neo-behaviorism and
social neuroscience, this volume shows that mind still
matters. Malle and Hodges have brought together a stellar
group of investigators to probe the ways in which people
perceive and think about 'other minds.' Like Fritz Heider
before them, Malle, Hodges, and colleagues know that the
study of folk psychology offers unique scientific
opportunities. The advances in theory of mind, simulation
theory, and empathy research, to name a few, reassure us
that the day for the total reduction of psychology has
not yet come." Joachim I. Krueger, PhD, Department of
Psychology, Brown University
"Once upon a time in psychology,
other minds were a taboo topic. That's over now, and
instead, the hot new topic is how people manage the trick
of perceiving other minds--as well as understanding their
own minds. This book brings together exciting current
views of the process of mind perception from laboratories
studying social, cognitive, developmental, and
neuroscientific psychology." Daniel M. Wegner, PhD,
Department of Psychology, Harvard
University
"A great many scholars have noted
the inherent difficulty of trying to discern the contents
of other minds, a difficulty, it is now clear, we all try
to overcome by employing a variety of inferential tools.
Fittingly, this excellent and timely volume likewise
displays a variety of perspectives on how people approach
the 'problem of other minds,' both when mindreading is
successfully accomplished and when efforts to do so fall
short. Anyone who wants to better understand this subject
would be well advised to read this book." Thomas D.
Gilovich, PhD, Department of Psychology, Cornell
University
"In recent years, the study of
'other minds' has promised the possibility of a
rapprochement among various branches of the psychological
sciences. This volume achieves this reconciliation as
developmental, social, and abnormal psychologies are
brought together with linguistic and communication
sciences and the burgeoning area of social cognitive
neuroscience. Encyclopedic in its range, it will serve as
a handbook for all those committed to explaining the
human capacity for social understanding." Chris Moore,
PhD, Department of Human Development and Applied
Psychology, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
University of Toronto, Canada
Il fut une époque, en
psychologie, où lire les pensées d'autrui
restait un sujet tabou, non scientifique. C'est
maintenant un sujet d'intérêt majeur.
Comment le cerveau, l'esprit, est capable de
décoder le ressentiment d'autrui, apparaît
comme la clé de la cognition sociale.
L'échokinése ou réplication du
bâillement, propre aux grands singes et à
l'Homme est un modèle d'un comportement
archaïque sous cortical, involontaire, capable
d'être décodé involontairement et
reproduit.
Ce livre parcourt
différents domaines : qu'est ce que le cerveau
social, comment se développe la théorie de
l'esprit, la simulation mentale d'autrui, l'empathie, le
langage et la communication non verbale. Pas une seule
ligne ne parle du bâillement... Néanmoins,
il représente une actualisation complète
des données de ce thème en plein
bourgeonnement.
Yawning and
stretchingare rather sentient actions of the instinct
for exhilaration, than for rest. For when we feel the
unpleasant condition of languor and weariness, we can
attain its opposite by new efforts of the animal-sentient
forces, as well as by their periodical relaxation during
sleep.
If, therefore, the obscure stimulus leads us to the
former, we then express the anticipated condition of
renewed activity of the animal-sentient forces, by
imperfect efforts, to which the agreeable obscure
foreseeing of the condition of activity excites us.
Consequently, although these movements are doubtless
signs of weariness, and of the need for sleep, yet they
are not sentient actions of the instinct for sleep, but
of the instinct for activity, or the waking state.
All circumstances that excite the obscure foreseeing
of pleasing exhilaration, and, consequently, the
above-mentioned causes of weariness render the instinct
active, if we desire the antagonistic condition, namely
exhilarated activity. Now, as the sight of another person
who yawns or stretches himself, reminds us of this
condition antagonistic to disagreeable weariness, it
leads us to the instinct for exhilaration, and we stretch
and yawn with the person ....
Combien de fois
bâillez-vous par jour ? <5 = 24,7%.. 5-10 =
25,9%.. 10-15 = 15.4%.. 15-20 = 9,1%.. >20 =
24,6%
Ressentez-vous des
baillements excessifs ?
65,9% = non, tant
mieux
28,4% = oui et je ne
sais pas pouquoi
8% = oui et je prends
des antidépresseurs
1% = oui et je prends
des anti-épileptiques
4,7% = oui et je prends
d'autres médicaments
2,8% = oui et j 'ai des
troubles neurologiques
2,2% = oui et j 'ai des
troubles hormonaux
2,5% = oui et j 'ai des
tics moteurs
2% = oui et j 'ai des
tocs
déclenchez-vous
facilement le bâillement d'autrui ? 74,8%
êtes-vous sensible
au bâillement d'autrui ? 73,4%
"... remember that
we are still at the beginning, that the complexity of the
problem of Specific Differences is hardly less now than
it was when Darwin first shewed that Natrural History is
a problem and no wain riddle."
